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	growing child food

Studies on Dyes

RED
FD&C Red No. 40 - Allura Red
FD&C Red No. 3 - Erythrosine

1. Tsuda, S., et al. "DNA Damage Induced by Red Food Dyes Orally Administered to Pregnant and Male Mice." Toxicol Sci 61, no. 1 (May 2001): 92-99.
"We determined the genotoxicity of synthetic red tar dyes (amaranth Red 2, allura red Red 40, acid red #106, new coccine No. 18) currently used as food color additives in many countries, including Japan. The assay was positive in the colon 3 hours after the administration of amaranth and allura red and weakly positive in the lung 6 hours after the administration of amaranth. Acid red did not induce DNA damage in any sample at any sampling time. The 3 dyes induced DNA damage in the color starting at 10 mg/kg. 6.5 mg/10 ml of new coccine induced DNA damage in color, glandular stomach, and bladder. Because the 3 azo additives we examined induced colon DNA damage at very low doses, more extensive assessments of azo additives is warranted."

2. Vorhees, C. V., et al. "Developmental Toxicity and Psychotoxicity of FD and C Red Dye No. 40 (Allura Red AC) in Rats." Toxicology 28, no. 3 (1983): 207-217.
"Adult Sprague-Dawley rats were fed diets containing FD and C red dye No. 40 for 2 weeks and were then bred. The diets were continued for the females throughout gestation and lactation and were provided continuously to the offspring thereafter. Red 40 significantly reduced reproductive success, parental and offspring weight, brain weight, survival, and female vaginal patency development. Behaviorally, Red 40 produced substantially decreased running wheel activity, and slightly increased post-weaning open-field rearing activity. Overall, R40 produced evidence of both physical and behavioral toxicity in developing rats at doses up to 10 percent of the diet." (high dose)

3. Dees, C., et al. "Estrogenic and DNA-Damaging Activity of Red No. 3 in Human Breast Cancer Cells." Environ Health Perspect 105 Suppl. 3 (March 1997): 625-632. "Exposure to pesticides, dyes, and pollutants that mimic the growth promoting effects of estrogen may cause breast cancer. Red No. 3 increased binding of the ER from MCF-7 cells to the estrogen responsive element. Consumption of Red No. 3, which has estrogenlike growth stimulatory properties and may be genotoxic, could be a significant risk factor in human breast carcinogenesis."

4. Lafferman, J. A., and E. K. Silbergeld. "Erythrosine B Inhibits Dopamine Transport in Rat Caudate Synaptosomes." Science 205 (1979): 410-412.

5. Abdel Aziz, A. H., et al. "A Study on the Reproductive Toxicity of Erythrosine [Red No. 3] in Male Mice." Pharmacol Res 35, no. 5 (May 1997): 457-462.
"The potential adverse effects of erythrosine (ER FD&C Red No. 3) on the spermatogenesis process were investigated in adult mice sperm count as well as the percentage of motile sperms were significantly inhibited by about 50 percent and 57 percent respectively. Moreover, ER was shown to disrupt the normal morphology of the sperm head; it increased the incidence of sperms with abnormal head by about 57 percent and 65 percent respectively. The induced increase in sperm abnormalities could enhance the spermatogenetic dysfunction and germ cell mutagenicity. These findings indicate that ER with used doses has a potential toxic effect on spermatogenesis in mice and in turn, it may affect its testicular function and reproductive performance."

6. Tanaka, T. "Reproductive and Neurobehavioral Toxicity Study of Erythrosine [Red No. 3] Administered to Mice in the Diet." Food Chem Toxicol 39, no. 5 (May 2001): 447-454.
"Erythrosine was given in the diet to provide levels of 0 (control), 0.005, 0.015 and 0.045 percent from 5 weeks of age of the F(0) generation to 9 weeks of age of the F(1) generation in mice, and selected reproductive and neurobehavioral parameters were measured. In movement activities of exploratory behaviour, several parameters were significantly changed in the high dose group, and those effects were dose-related in adult females in the F(0) and F(1) generations and in male offspring in the F(1) generation."

7. Augustine, G. J., Jr., and H. Levitan. "Neurotransmitter Release from a Vertebrate Neuromuscular Synapse Affected by a Food Dye." Science 207, no. 4438 (March 28, 1980): 1489-1490.
"FD&C No. 3 produced an irreversible, dose-dependent increase in neurotransmitter release. These results suggest that erythrosine might provide a useful pharmacological tool for studying the process of transmitter release, but that its use as a food additive should be re-examined."

YELLOW

FD&C Yellow No. 5 Tartrazine FD&C Yellow No. 6 Sunset Yellow

8. Rowe, K. S., and K. J. Rowe. "Synthetic Food Coloring and Behavior: A Dose Response Effect in a Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Repeated-Measures Study." J. Pediatr 125 (November 1994): 691-698.
"This study demonstrated a functional relation between the ingestion of a synthetic food color (tartrazine) and behavioral changes in 24 atopic children, aged 2 to 14 years, with marked reactions being observed at all six dosage levels of dye challenge."

9. Koutsogeorgopoulou, L., et al. "Immunological Aspects of the Common Food Colorants, Amaranth and Tartrazine." Vet Hum Toxicol 40, no. 1 (February 1998): 1-4.
"We described the cytotoxic and immunosuppressive effects of food colorants such as amaranth and tartrazine. The results showed clear immunosuppressive effects from the 2 substances tested, although the concentrations chosen for this study proved to be non-cytotoxic."

10. Tanaka, T. "Reproductive and Neurobehavioral Effects of Sunset Yellow FCF Administered to Mice in Their Diet." Toxicol Ind Health 12, no. 1 (January-February 1996): 69-79.

11. London Food Commission. "Danger! Additives at Work." London 1985. FD&C Yellow No. 6 (Sunset Yellow) was found to be a carcinogen when fed to animals.

ALL FOOD DYES

12. Boris, M., and F. S. Mandel. "Foods and Additives Are Common Causes of the Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder in Children." Ann Allergy 72, no. 5 (May 1994): 462-468.
This double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenge study supports the role of dietary factors in ADHD (including dyes). Through a simple elimination diet symptoms can be controlled.

13. Weiss, B., et al. "Behavioral Responses to Artificial Food Colors." Science 207, no. 4438 (March 28, 1980): 1487-1489.

14. Swanson, J. M., and M. Kinsbourne. "Food Dyes Impair Performance of Hyperactive Children on a Laboratory Learning Test." Science 207, no. 4438 (March 28, 1980): 1485-1487.
"The performance of the hyperactive children on paired-associate learning tests on the day they received the dye blend was impaired relative to their performance after they received the placebo, but the performance of the non-hyperactive group was not affected by the challenges"